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Recent Developments:

• Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) has granted a five-year Licence for Operation to Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) for Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS)-3 & 4 in Gujarat, after completing rigorous multi-tiered safety reviews covering design, construction, commissioning, and full-power operation.
• KAPS-3 achieved full-power commissioning in August 2023, while KAPS-4 reached full-power operation in August 2024 before receiving the regular operating licence.
• KAPS-3 & 4 are India’s first indigenously designed 700 MWe Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), representing an upgraded design evolved from the earlier 540 MWe PHWR.
• The approval strengthens NPCIL’s fleet-mode programme for construction of additional 700 MWe PHWRs across the country.

India’s Nuclear Power Programme:

Evolution of India's Nuclear Programme:

• India's civilian nuclear programme began with the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in 1948.
• Apsara, Asia's first research reactor, became operational in 1956 at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Trombay.
• India commissioned its first commercial nuclear power plant at Tarapur in 1969, becoming the second Asian country after Japan to establish a nuclear power station.
• During the 1950s and 1960s, India developed a strong nuclear research ecosystem with international technological cooperation.
• Dr. Homi J. Bhabha conceptualised India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme, while Dr. Vikram Sarabhai supported its long-term implementation for achieving energy security.

Objectives of the Three-Stage Nuclear Programme:

• The programme aims to achieve long-term energy security by maximising the utilisation of India's limited uranium reserves and abundant thorium resources.
• The strategy gradually shifts from natural uranium to plutonium and finally to thorium-based uranium-233 (U-233) fuel.

Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme:

Stage-I: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs):

• PHWRs use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water (Deuterium Oxide – D₂O) as both the moderator and coolant.
• Electricity generation in PHWRs also produces Plutonium-239 (Pu-239), which is recovered through spent fuel reprocessing.
• India's PHWR programme started with Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS-1) during the late 1960s, based on Canadian reactor technology.
• India presently operates 15 PHWRs of 220 MWe, 2 PHWRs of 540 MWe, and has commissioned indigenous 700 MWe PHWRs under the next-generation fleet programme.
• Imported Light Water Reactors (LWRs) supplement India's overall nuclear power capacity.

Stage-II: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs):

• Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) primarily use plutonium-based fuel generated during Stage-I.
• FBRs produce more fissile material than they consume by converting fertile thorium into Uranium-233 (U-233).
• Efficient spent fuel reprocessing is essential for recycling plutonium and sustaining the closed nuclear fuel cycle.
• India's flagship Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR-500 MWe) at Kalpakkam has achieved important commissioning milestones, including sodium system commissioning and core loading.

Stage-III: Thorium-Based Nuclear Programme:

• The final stage is based on the Thorium–Uranium-233 (Th-U233) fuel cycle.
• Uranium-233, produced during Stage-II, becomes the principal fuel for advanced reactors.
• The proposed Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) has been designed to utilise thorium efficiently.
• Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs) are also being explored as a future option for thorium utilisation.

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR):

Key Features:

• PHWR is a nuclear reactor that uses heavy water as both moderator and coolant.
• It generally uses natural uranium as reactor fuel, reducing dependence on uranium enrichment facilities.
• PHWR technology supports online refuelling, enabling uninterrupted electricity generation.
• Indigenous PHWR technology has significantly improved India's self-reliance in nuclear reactor design and manufacturing.
• The 700 MWe PHWR incorporates enhanced passive safety systems, improved thermal efficiency, and better operational reliability than earlier designs.

Government Initiatives to Expand Nuclear Capacity:

Capacity Expansion:

• India plans to increase installed nuclear power capacity from 8,180 MW to 22,480 MW by 2031–32.
• Ten reactors with a combined capacity of about 8,000 MW are under construction across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Preparatory activities have commenced for another ten reactors, targeted for phased completion by 2031–32.
• India has approved the establishment of 6 × 1208 MW nuclear reactors at Kovvada, Andhra Pradesh, in cooperation with the United States.
• The Union Budget 2025–26 announced a long-term vision of achieving 100 GW nuclear power capacity by 2047, making nuclear energy a major component of India's clean energy transition.

Recent Developments in India’s Nuclear Sector:

Major Developments:

• A significant uranium deposit discovered near Jaduguda Mines is expected to extend the operational life of India's oldest uranium mine by more than 50 years.
• KAPS-3 & KAPS-4 have become the country's first commercially operational indigenous 700 MWe PHWRs.
• India's PFBR-500 has crossed important commissioning milestones, advancing the country's closed nuclear fuel cycle.
• NPCIL and NTPC have established the joint venture ASHVINI to develop, own, and operate future nuclear power plants.
• The proposed Mahi-Banswara Project in Rajasthan will consist of 4 × 700 MWe PHWRs under the joint venture.

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB):

About AERB:

• AERB was constituted on 15 November 1983 under the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
• It serves as India's national nuclear safety regulator responsible for ensuring the safe use of nuclear energy and radiation technologies.
• Its regulatory authority is derived from the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, associated rules, and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• AERB regulates the complete lifecycle of nuclear facilities, including site selection, design, construction, commissioning, operation, decommissioning, and radioactive waste management.
• It also establishes radiation safety standards, conducts inspections, grants licences, and enforces compliance with national and international safety requirements.

Significance of Indigenous 700 MWe PHWRs:

Strategic Importance:

• They strengthen Atmanirbhar Bharat in advanced nuclear reactor technology.
• They reduce dependence on imported reactor designs and critical nuclear equipment.
• They support energy security through reliable baseload electricity generation.
• They contribute to India's Net Zero commitments by providing low-carbon electricity.
• Fleet-mode construction lowers project cost, standardises manufacturing, and shortens construction timelines.
• Indigenous PHWRs create opportunities for greater participation of Indian industries in the nuclear supply chain.

Value Addition for UPSC:

Important Facts:

• Fuel of PHWR: Natural Uranium.
• Moderator & Coolant of PHWR: Heavy Water (D₂O).
• Fuel of Stage-II: Plutonium.
• Fuel of Stage-III: Uranium-233 produced from Thorium.
• India's Nuclear Programme Architect: Dr. Homi J. Bhabha.
• Supporting Scientist: Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.
• First Research Reactor: Apsara (1956).
• First Commercial Nuclear Power Plant: Tarapur Atomic Power Station (1969).
• First Indigenous 700 MWe PHWRs: Kakrapar Units 3 & 4, Gujarat.
• Target Nuclear Capacity: 22.48 GW by 2031–32 and 100 GW by 2047